#lang scribble/doc
@(require scribble/manual
          scribble/eval
          scribble/bnf
          racket/list
          (for-label racket/list)
          "guide-utils.ss")

@(define step @elem{=})

@(define list-eval (make-base-eval))
@(interaction-eval #:eval list-eval (require racket/list))

@title{Lists, Iteration, and Recursion}

Racket is a dialect of the language Lisp, whose name originally stood
for ``LISt Processor.'' The built-in list datatype remains a prominent
feature of the language.

The @racket[list] function takes any number of values and returns
a list containing the values:

@interaction[(list "red" "green" "blue")
             (list 1 2 3 4 5)]

@margin-note{A list usually prints with @litchar{'}, but the printed
             form of a list depends on its content. See
             @secref["pairs"] for more information.}

As you can see, a list result prints in the @tech{REPL} as a quote
@litchar{'} and then a pair of parentheses wrapped around the printed
form of the list elements. There's an opportunity for confusion here,
because parentheses are used for both expressions, such as
@racket[(list "red" "green" "blue")], and printed results, such as
@racketresult['("red" "green" "blue")]. In addition to the quote,
parentheses for results are printed in blue in the documentation and
in DrRacket, whereas parentheses for expressions are brown.

Many predefined functions operate on lists. Here are a few examples:

@interaction[
(code:line (length (list "hop" "skip" "jump"))        (code:comment @#,t{count the elements}))
(code:line (list-ref (list "hop" "skip" "jump") 0)    (code:comment @#,t{extract by position}))
(list-ref (list "hop" "skip" "jump") 1)
(code:line (append (list "hop" "skip") (list "jump")) (code:comment @#,t{combine lists}))
(code:line (reverse (list "hop" "skip" "jump"))       (code:comment @#,t{reverse order}))
(code:line (member "fall" (list "hop" "skip" "jump")) (code:comment @#,t{check for an element}))
]

@;------------------------------------------------------------------------
@section{Predefined List Loops}

In addition to simple operations like @racket[append], Racket includes
functions that iterate over the elements of a list. These iteration
functions play a role similar to @racket[for] in Java, Racket, and other
languages. The body of a Racket iteration is packaged into a function
to be applied to each element, so the @racket[lambda] form becomes
particularly handy in combination with iteration functions.

Different list-iteration functions combine iteration results in
different ways. The @racket[map] function uses the per-element
results to create a new list:

@interaction[
(map sqrt (list 1 4 9 16))
(map (lambda (i)
       (string-append i "!"))
     (list "peanuts" "popcorn" "crackerjack"))
]

The @racket[andmap] and @racket[ormap] functions combine the results
by @racket[and]ing or @racket[or]ing:

@interaction[
(andmap string? (list "a" "b" "c"))
(andmap string? (list "a" "b" 6))
(ormap number? (list "a" "b" 6))
]

The @racket[filter] function keeps elements for which the body result
is true, and discards elements for which it is @racket[#f]:

@interaction[
(filter string? (list "a" "b" 6))
(filter positive? (list 1 -2 6 7 0))
]

The @racket[map], @racket[andmap], @racket[ormap], and @racket[filter]
functions can all handle multiple lists, instead of just a single
list. The lists must all have the same length, and the given function
must accept one argument for each list:

@interaction[
(map (lambda (s n) (substring s 0 n))
     (list "peanuts" "popcorn" "crackerjack")
     (list 6 3 7))
]

The @racket[foldl] function generalizes some iteration functions. It
uses the per-element function to both process an element and combine
it with the ``current'' value, so the per-element function takes an
extra first argument. Also, a starting ``current'' value must be
provided before the lists:

@interaction[
(foldl (lambda (elem v)
         (+ v (* elem elem)))
       0
       '(1 2 3))
]

Despite its generality, @racket[foldl] is not as popular as the other
functions. One reason is that @racket[map], @racket[ormap],
@racket[andmap], and @racket[filter] cover the most common kinds of
list loops.

Racket provides a general @defterm{list comprehension} form
@racket[for/list], which builds a list by iterating through
@defterm{sequences}. List comprehensions and related iteration forms
are described in @secref["for"].

@;------------------------------------------------------------------------
@section{List Iteration from Scratch}

Although @racket[map] and other iteration functions are predefined, they
are not primitive in any interesting sense. You can write equivalent
iterations using a handful of list primitives.

Since a Racket list is a linked list, the two core operations on a
non-empty list are

@itemize[

 @item{@racket[first]: get the first thing in the list; and}

 @item{@racket[rest]: get the rest of the list.}

]

@examples[
#:eval list-eval
(first (list 1 2 3))
(rest (list 1 2 3))
]

To create a new node for a linked list---that is, to add to the front
of the list---use the @racket[cons] function, which is short for
``construct.'' To get an empty list to start with, use the
@racket[empty] constant:

@interaction[
#:eval list-eval
empty
(cons "head" empty)
(cons "dead" (cons "head" empty))
]

To process a list, you need to be able to distinguish empty lists from
non-empty lists, because @racket[first] and @racket[rest] work only on
non-empty lists. The @racket[empty?] function detects empty lists,
and @racket[cons?] detects non-empty lists:

@interaction[
#:eval list-eval
(empty? empty)
(empty? (cons "head" empty))
(cons? empty)
(cons? (cons "head" empty))
]

With these pieces, you can write your own versions of the
@racket[length] function, @racket[map] function, and more.

@defexamples[
#:eval list-eval
(define (my-length lst)
  (cond
   [(empty? lst) 0]
   [else (+ 1 (my-length (rest lst)))]))
(my-length empty)
(my-length (list "a" "b" "c"))
]
@def+int[
#:eval list-eval
(define (my-map f lst)
  (cond
   [(empty? lst) empty]
   [else (cons (f (first lst))
               (my-map f (rest lst)))]))
(my-map string-upcase (list "ready" "set" "go"))
]

If the derivation of the above definitions is mysterious to you,
consider reading @|HtDP|. If you are merely suspicious of the use
of recursive calls instead of a looping construct, then read on.

@;------------------------------------------------------------------------
@section[#:tag "tail-recursion"]{Tail Recursion}

Both the @racket[my-length] and @racket[my-map] functions run in
@math{O(n)} time for a list of length @math{n}. This is easy to see by
imagining how @racket[(my-length (list "a" "b" "c"))] must evaluate:

@racketblock[
#||# (my-length (list "a" "b" "c"))
#,step (+ 1 (my-length (list "b" "c")))
#,step (+ 1 (+ 1 (my-length (list "c"))))
#,step (+ 1 (+ 1 (+ 1 (my-length (list)))))
#,step (+ 1 (+ 1 (+ 1 0)))
#,step (+ 1 (+ 1 1))
#,step (+ 1 2)
#,step 3
]

For a list with @math{n} elements, evaluation will stack up @math{n}
@racket[(+ 1 ...)] additions, and then finally add them up when the
list is exhausted.

You can avoid piling up additions by adding along the way. To
accumulate a length this way, we need a function that takes both a
list and the length of the list seen so far; the code below uses a
local function @racket[iter] that accumulates the length in an
argument @racket[len]:

@racketblock[
(define (my-length lst)
  (code:comment @#,t{local function @racket[iter]:})
  (define (iter lst len)
    (cond
     [(empty? lst) len]
     [else (iter (rest lst) (+ len 1))]))
  (code:comment @#,t{body of @racket[my-length] calls @racket[iter]:})
  (iter lst 0))
]

Now evaluation looks like this:

@racketblock[
#||# (my-length (list "a" "b" "c"))
#,step (iter (list "a" "b" "c") 0)
#,step (iter (list "b" "c") 1)
#,step (iter (list "c") 2)
#,step (iter (list) 3)
3
]

The revised @racket[my-length] runs in constant space, just as the
evaluation steps above suggest. That is, when the result of a
function call, like @racket[(iter (list "b" "c") 1)], is exactly the
result of some other function call, like @racket[(iter (list "c")
2)], then the first one doesn't have to wait around for the second
one, because that takes up space for no good reason.

This evaluation behavior is sometimes called @idefterm{tail-call
optimization}, but it's not merely an ``optimization'' in Racket; it's
a guarantee about the way the code will run. More precisely, an
expression in @deftech{tail position} with respect to another
expression does not take extra computation space over the other
expression.

In the case of @racket[my-map], @math{O(n)} space complexity is
reasonable, since it has to generate a result of size
@math{O(n)}. Nevertheless, you can reduce the constant factor by
accumulating the result list. The only catch is that the accumulated
list will be backwards, so you'll have to reverse it at the very end:

@margin-note{Attempting to reduce a constant factor like this is
usually not worthwhile, as discussed below.}

@racketblock[
(define (my-map f lst)
  (define (iter lst backward-result)
    (cond
     [(empty? lst) (reverse backward-result)]
     [else (iter (rest lst)
                 (cons (f (first lst))
                          backward-result))]))
  (iter lst empty))
]

It turns out that if you write

@racketblock[
(define (my-map f lst)
  (for/list ([i lst])
    (f i)))
]

then the @racket[for/list] form in the function both is expanded to
essentially the same code as the @racket[iter] local definition and
use. The difference is merely syntactic convenience.

@;------------------------------------------------------------------------
@section{Recursion versus Iteration}

The @racket[my-length] and @racket[my-map] examples demonstrate that
iteration is just a special case of recursion. In many languages, it's
important to try to fit as many computations as possible into
iteration form. Otherwise, performance will be bad, and moderately
large inputs can lead to stack overflow.  Similarly, in Racket, it is
sometimes important to make sure that tail recursion is used to avoid
@math{O(n)} space consumption when the computation is easily performed
in constant space.

At the same time, recursion does not lead to particularly bad
performance in Racket, and there is no such thing as stack overflow;
you can run out of memory if a computation involves too much context,
but exhausting memory typically requires orders of magnitude deeper
recursion than would trigger a stack overflow in other
languages. These considerations, combined with the fact that
tail-recursive programs automatically run the same as a loop, lead
Racket programmers to embrace recursive forms rather than avoid them.

Suppose, for example, that you want to remove consecutive duplicates
from a list. While such a function can be written as a loop that
remembers the previous element for each iteration, a Racket programmer
would more likely just write the following:

@def+int[
#:eval list-eval
(define (remove-dups l)
  (cond
   [(empty? l) empty]
   [(empty? (rest l)) l]
   [else
    (let ([i (first l)])
      (if (equal? i (first (rest l)))
          (remove-dups (rest l))
          (cons i (remove-dups (rest l)))))]))
(remove-dups (list "a" "b" "b" "b" "c" "c"))
]

In general, this function consumes @math{O(n)} space for an input
list of length @math{n}, but that's fine, since it produces an
@math{O(n)} result. If the input list happens to be mostly consecutive
duplicates, then the resulting list can be much smaller than
@math{O(n)}---and @racket[remove-dups] will also use much less than
@math{O(n)} space! The reason is that when the function discards
duplicates, it returns the result of a @racket[remove-dups] call
directly, so the tail-call ``optimization'' kicks in:

@racketblock[
#||# (remove-dups (list "a" "b" "b" "b" "b" "b"))
#,step (cons "a" (remove-dups (list "b" "b" "b" "b" "b")))
#,step (cons "a" (remove-dups (list "b" "b" "b" "b")))
#,step (cons "a" (remove-dups (list "b" "b" "b")))
#,step (cons "a" (remove-dups (list "b" "b")))
#,step (cons "a" (remove-dups (list "b")))
#,step (cons "a" (list "b"))
#,step (list "a" "b")
]

@; ----------------------------------------------------------------------

@close-eval[list-eval]
